Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre
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New Zealand is host to a number of poisonous plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. Typically poisonous plants cause harm following inadvertent ingestion or via contact with the skin, but eye exposures to plant material or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter are also exposure routes which may lead to poisoning.Young children most commonly ingest plant material; this is typically due to their having a natural curiosity about their surroundings and their tendency for oral exploration,1 whereas adults tend to more commonly come into contact with poisonous plants via skin or eye contact following gardening or yard work. Occasionally there may be intentional ingestions, or poisonous species may be mistaken for an edible plant and ingested as food, or made into drinks such as infusions or teas.Children are unlikely to develop significant effects following small exploratory ingestions of the majority of plants. However, there are some plants, when ingested in sufficient quantity, which are capable of causing severe poisoning in both children and adults.The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. In children, exposures are typically reported soon after ingestion when parents notice plant matter in the childs mouth or notice the child playing with parts of the plant. Conversely adults exposed to a poisonous plant may only contact the Poisons Centre when they become symptomatic.In this review we examine the poisonous plants about which the NZNPC most commonly receives enquiries and include their botanical descriptions, toxins present, mechanisms of toxicity and toxic effects and also provide comprehensive poisoning treatment protocols.Methods The NZNPC is the sole Poison Information Centre for New Zealand; covering a population of approximately 4.4 million people, it serves a mixed population of urban and rural areas. The NZNPC uses an in-house telephone collection system; it is built on Firebird 2122 v2.0.3 software which is developed by the Firebird Project. This system logs information pertaining to all enquires received by the NZNPC. Call data from the telephone collection database regarding human plant exposures were analysed retrospectively for the years 2003-2010 inclusively. Excluded were enquires regarding exposure to known non-poisonous plants, mushroom/fungi exposures, unidentified plants, animal poisonings and requests for general information in the absence of an actual exposure. The 15 most commonly enquired about plants over the 8-year period were selected as the basis for this review. Some of these, however, possess similar toxins, mechanisms of action and/or clinical effects, and such plants were considered as a single entity. For example oleander and foxglove both contain toxic cardiac glycosides and have a comparable toxidrome. In compiling the review article, an extensive literature review was performed by searching Ovid MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Initial searching of these databases was done using specific species and common names of the plants, along with the keywords poisoning, poison, toxicity, ingestion, adverse effects, overdose, intoxication and toxin to identify relevant articles. Bibliographies of identified articles were screened for additional relevant studies including non-indexed reports. In addition, non-peer-reviewed sources were also included; further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and applicable internet resources. Results For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC, of which 171,130 were related to acute human exposure. Of these exposure enquiries, 11,049 (6.5%) involved plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries involved, in decreasing order of frequency, were black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), oleander (Nerium oleander), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox), and foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). The combined total number of calls for these 15 species was 2754 (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). Children (less than 12 years of age) were involved in 2210 (80%) of these calls while adults were involved in 544 (20%). The number of enquiries received for each of the 15 species over the 8 year period along with the number regarding children or adults are presented in Table 1. Table 2 shows the number of exposures by different routes for each of the 15 species. The route of exposure was classified as either ingestion, eye contact, skin contact or inhalation (e.g. exposure following the inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter). Table 1. Total enquiries received and numbers of child and adult enquiries for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Children Adults Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 749 (90%) 85 (10%) Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 520 (93.5%) 36 (6.5%) Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 137 (88%) 18 (12%) Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 36 (24%) 113 (76%) Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 143 (99%) 1 (1%) Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 108 (79%) 28 (21%) Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 123 (96%) 5 (4%) Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 92 (76%) 29 (24%) Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 53 (56%) 42 (44%) Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 56 (67%) 28 (33%) Oleander Nerium oleander 81 43 (53%) 38 (47%) Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 39 (51%) 38 (49%) Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 61 (88%) 8 (12%) Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 5 (8%) 59 (92%) Foxglove Digitalis purpurea 61 45 (74%) 16 (26%) Total 2754 2210 (80%) 544 (20%) Table 2. Total enquiries received and route of exposure for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Route of exposure Ingestion Skin Eye Inhalation Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 778 35 19 2 Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 525 26 5 - Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 152 - - 3 Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 31 14 104 - Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 142 2 - - Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 102 25 7 2 Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 127 1 - - Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 120 1 - - Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 86 8 1 - Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 82 2 - - Oleander Nerium oleander 81 46 23 6 6 Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 52 22 1 2 Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 69 - - - Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 1 60 3 - Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Summary
Abstract
New Zealand has a number of plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. Poisonous plants can cause harm following inadvertent ingestion, via skin contact, eye exposures or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter.
Aim
The purpose of this article is to determine the 15 most common poisonous plant enquiries to the NZNPC and provide a review of current literature, discussing the symptoms that might arise upon exposure to these poisonous plants and the recommended medical management of such poisonings.
Method
Call data from the NZNPC telephone collection databases regarding human plant exposures between 2003 and 2010 were analysed retrospectively. The most common plants causing human poisoning were selected as the basis for this review. An extensive literature review was also performed by systematically searching OVID MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and web material.
Results
For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC. Of these enquiries, 11,049 involved exposures to plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries, in decreasing order of frequency, were: black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), oleander (Nerium oleander), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox). The combined total of enquiries for these 15 species was 2754 calls (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). The signs and symptoms resulting from poisoning from these plants are discussed. Medical treatment recommendations are made.
Conclusion
Poisoning following ingestion or other forms of exposures to plants in New Zealand is relatively common, particularly among children. However, serious adverse reactions are comparatively rare. Accurate plant identification and details on the type of exposure can be important in assessing the likely risks. Effective medical management of these poisonings can be achieved by following the principles outlined in this review.
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Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre
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New Zealand is host to a number of poisonous plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. Typically poisonous plants cause harm following inadvertent ingestion or via contact with the skin, but eye exposures to plant material or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter are also exposure routes which may lead to poisoning.Young children most commonly ingest plant material; this is typically due to their having a natural curiosity about their surroundings and their tendency for oral exploration,1 whereas adults tend to more commonly come into contact with poisonous plants via skin or eye contact following gardening or yard work. Occasionally there may be intentional ingestions, or poisonous species may be mistaken for an edible plant and ingested as food, or made into drinks such as infusions or teas.Children are unlikely to develop significant effects following small exploratory ingestions of the majority of plants. However, there are some plants, when ingested in sufficient quantity, which are capable of causing severe poisoning in both children and adults.The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. In children, exposures are typically reported soon after ingestion when parents notice plant matter in the childs mouth or notice the child playing with parts of the plant. Conversely adults exposed to a poisonous plant may only contact the Poisons Centre when they become symptomatic.In this review we examine the poisonous plants about which the NZNPC most commonly receives enquiries and include their botanical descriptions, toxins present, mechanisms of toxicity and toxic effects and also provide comprehensive poisoning treatment protocols.Methods The NZNPC is the sole Poison Information Centre for New Zealand; covering a population of approximately 4.4 million people, it serves a mixed population of urban and rural areas. The NZNPC uses an in-house telephone collection system; it is built on Firebird 2122 v2.0.3 software which is developed by the Firebird Project. This system logs information pertaining to all enquires received by the NZNPC. Call data from the telephone collection database regarding human plant exposures were analysed retrospectively for the years 2003-2010 inclusively. Excluded were enquires regarding exposure to known non-poisonous plants, mushroom/fungi exposures, unidentified plants, animal poisonings and requests for general information in the absence of an actual exposure. The 15 most commonly enquired about plants over the 8-year period were selected as the basis for this review. Some of these, however, possess similar toxins, mechanisms of action and/or clinical effects, and such plants were considered as a single entity. For example oleander and foxglove both contain toxic cardiac glycosides and have a comparable toxidrome. In compiling the review article, an extensive literature review was performed by searching Ovid MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Initial searching of these databases was done using specific species and common names of the plants, along with the keywords poisoning, poison, toxicity, ingestion, adverse effects, overdose, intoxication and toxin to identify relevant articles. Bibliographies of identified articles were screened for additional relevant studies including non-indexed reports. In addition, non-peer-reviewed sources were also included; further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and applicable internet resources. Results For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC, of which 171,130 were related to acute human exposure. Of these exposure enquiries, 11,049 (6.5%) involved plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries involved, in decreasing order of frequency, were black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), oleander (Nerium oleander), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox), and foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). The combined total number of calls for these 15 species was 2754 (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). Children (less than 12 years of age) were involved in 2210 (80%) of these calls while adults were involved in 544 (20%). The number of enquiries received for each of the 15 species over the 8 year period along with the number regarding children or adults are presented in Table 1. Table 2 shows the number of exposures by different routes for each of the 15 species. The route of exposure was classified as either ingestion, eye contact, skin contact or inhalation (e.g. exposure following the inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter). Table 1. Total enquiries received and numbers of child and adult enquiries for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Children Adults Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 749 (90%) 85 (10%) Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 520 (93.5%) 36 (6.5%) Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 137 (88%) 18 (12%) Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 36 (24%) 113 (76%) Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 143 (99%) 1 (1%) Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 108 (79%) 28 (21%) Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 123 (96%) 5 (4%) Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 92 (76%) 29 (24%) Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 53 (56%) 42 (44%) Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 56 (67%) 28 (33%) Oleander Nerium oleander 81 43 (53%) 38 (47%) Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 39 (51%) 38 (49%) Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 61 (88%) 8 (12%) Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 5 (8%) 59 (92%) Foxglove Digitalis purpurea 61 45 (74%) 16 (26%) Total 2754 2210 (80%) 544 (20%) Table 2. Total enquiries received and route of exposure for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Route of exposure Ingestion Skin Eye Inhalation Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 778 35 19 2 Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 525 26 5 - Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 152 - - 3 Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 31 14 104 - Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 142 2 - - Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 102 25 7 2 Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 127 1 - - Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 120 1 - - Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 86 8 1 - Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 82 2 - - Oleander Nerium oleander 81 46 23 6 6 Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 52 22 1 2 Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 69 - - - Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 1 60 3 - Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Summary
Abstract
New Zealand has a number of plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. Poisonous plants can cause harm following inadvertent ingestion, via skin contact, eye exposures or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter.
Aim
The purpose of this article is to determine the 15 most common poisonous plant enquiries to the NZNPC and provide a review of current literature, discussing the symptoms that might arise upon exposure to these poisonous plants and the recommended medical management of such poisonings.
Method
Call data from the NZNPC telephone collection databases regarding human plant exposures between 2003 and 2010 were analysed retrospectively. The most common plants causing human poisoning were selected as the basis for this review. An extensive literature review was also performed by systematically searching OVID MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and web material.
Results
For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC. Of these enquiries, 11,049 involved exposures to plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries, in decreasing order of frequency, were: black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), oleander (Nerium oleander), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox). The combined total of enquiries for these 15 species was 2754 calls (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). The signs and symptoms resulting from poisoning from these plants are discussed. Medical treatment recommendations are made.
Conclusion
Poisoning following ingestion or other forms of exposures to plants in New Zealand is relatively common, particularly among children. However, serious adverse reactions are comparatively rare. Accurate plant identification and details on the type of exposure can be important in assessing the likely risks. Effective medical management of these poisonings can be achieved by following the principles outlined in this review.
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Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre
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New Zealand is host to a number of poisonous plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. Typically poisonous plants cause harm following inadvertent ingestion or via contact with the skin, but eye exposures to plant material or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter are also exposure routes which may lead to poisoning.Young children most commonly ingest plant material; this is typically due to their having a natural curiosity about their surroundings and their tendency for oral exploration,1 whereas adults tend to more commonly come into contact with poisonous plants via skin or eye contact following gardening or yard work. Occasionally there may be intentional ingestions, or poisonous species may be mistaken for an edible plant and ingested as food, or made into drinks such as infusions or teas.Children are unlikely to develop significant effects following small exploratory ingestions of the majority of plants. However, there are some plants, when ingested in sufficient quantity, which are capable of causing severe poisoning in both children and adults.The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. In children, exposures are typically reported soon after ingestion when parents notice plant matter in the childs mouth or notice the child playing with parts of the plant. Conversely adults exposed to a poisonous plant may only contact the Poisons Centre when they become symptomatic.In this review we examine the poisonous plants about which the NZNPC most commonly receives enquiries and include their botanical descriptions, toxins present, mechanisms of toxicity and toxic effects and also provide comprehensive poisoning treatment protocols.Methods The NZNPC is the sole Poison Information Centre for New Zealand; covering a population of approximately 4.4 million people, it serves a mixed population of urban and rural areas. The NZNPC uses an in-house telephone collection system; it is built on Firebird 2122 v2.0.3 software which is developed by the Firebird Project. This system logs information pertaining to all enquires received by the NZNPC. Call data from the telephone collection database regarding human plant exposures were analysed retrospectively for the years 2003-2010 inclusively. Excluded were enquires regarding exposure to known non-poisonous plants, mushroom/fungi exposures, unidentified plants, animal poisonings and requests for general information in the absence of an actual exposure. The 15 most commonly enquired about plants over the 8-year period were selected as the basis for this review. Some of these, however, possess similar toxins, mechanisms of action and/or clinical effects, and such plants were considered as a single entity. For example oleander and foxglove both contain toxic cardiac glycosides and have a comparable toxidrome. In compiling the review article, an extensive literature review was performed by searching Ovid MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Initial searching of these databases was done using specific species and common names of the plants, along with the keywords poisoning, poison, toxicity, ingestion, adverse effects, overdose, intoxication and toxin to identify relevant articles. Bibliographies of identified articles were screened for additional relevant studies including non-indexed reports. In addition, non-peer-reviewed sources were also included; further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and applicable internet resources. Results For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC, of which 171,130 were related to acute human exposure. Of these exposure enquiries, 11,049 (6.5%) involved plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries involved, in decreasing order of frequency, were black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), oleander (Nerium oleander), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox), and foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). The combined total number of calls for these 15 species was 2754 (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). Children (less than 12 years of age) were involved in 2210 (80%) of these calls while adults were involved in 544 (20%). The number of enquiries received for each of the 15 species over the 8 year period along with the number regarding children or adults are presented in Table 1. Table 2 shows the number of exposures by different routes for each of the 15 species. The route of exposure was classified as either ingestion, eye contact, skin contact or inhalation (e.g. exposure following the inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter). Table 1. Total enquiries received and numbers of child and adult enquiries for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Children Adults Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 749 (90%) 85 (10%) Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 520 (93.5%) 36 (6.5%) Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 137 (88%) 18 (12%) Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 36 (24%) 113 (76%) Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 143 (99%) 1 (1%) Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 108 (79%) 28 (21%) Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 123 (96%) 5 (4%) Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 92 (76%) 29 (24%) Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 53 (56%) 42 (44%) Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 56 (67%) 28 (33%) Oleander Nerium oleander 81 43 (53%) 38 (47%) Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 39 (51%) 38 (49%) Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 61 (88%) 8 (12%) Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 5 (8%) 59 (92%) Foxglove Digitalis purpurea 61 45 (74%) 16 (26%) Total 2754 2210 (80%) 544 (20%) Table 2. Total enquiries received and route of exposure for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Route of exposure Ingestion Skin Eye Inhalation Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 778 35 19 2 Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 525 26 5 - Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 152 - - 3 Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 31 14 104 - Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 142 2 - - Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 102 25 7 2 Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 127 1 - - Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 120 1 - - Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 86 8 1 - Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 82 2 - - Oleander Nerium oleander 81 46 23 6 6 Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 52 22 1 2 Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 69 - - - Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 1 60 3 - Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Summary
Abstract
New Zealand has a number of plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. Poisonous plants can cause harm following inadvertent ingestion, via skin contact, eye exposures or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter.
Aim
The purpose of this article is to determine the 15 most common poisonous plant enquiries to the NZNPC and provide a review of current literature, discussing the symptoms that might arise upon exposure to these poisonous plants and the recommended medical management of such poisonings.
Method
Call data from the NZNPC telephone collection databases regarding human plant exposures between 2003 and 2010 were analysed retrospectively. The most common plants causing human poisoning were selected as the basis for this review. An extensive literature review was also performed by systematically searching OVID MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and web material.
Results
For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC. Of these enquiries, 11,049 involved exposures to plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries, in decreasing order of frequency, were: black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), oleander (Nerium oleander), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox). The combined total of enquiries for these 15 species was 2754 calls (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). The signs and symptoms resulting from poisoning from these plants are discussed. Medical treatment recommendations are made.
Conclusion
Poisoning following ingestion or other forms of exposures to plants in New Zealand is relatively common, particularly among children. However, serious adverse reactions are comparatively rare. Accurate plant identification and details on the type of exposure can be important in assessing the likely risks. Effective medical management of these poisonings can be achieved by following the principles outlined in this review.
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Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre
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New Zealand is host to a number of poisonous plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. Typically poisonous plants cause harm following inadvertent ingestion or via contact with the skin, but eye exposures to plant material or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter are also exposure routes which may lead to poisoning.Young children most commonly ingest plant material; this is typically due to their having a natural curiosity about their surroundings and their tendency for oral exploration,1 whereas adults tend to more commonly come into contact with poisonous plants via skin or eye contact following gardening or yard work. Occasionally there may be intentional ingestions, or poisonous species may be mistaken for an edible plant and ingested as food, or made into drinks such as infusions or teas.Children are unlikely to develop significant effects following small exploratory ingestions of the majority of plants. However, there are some plants, when ingested in sufficient quantity, which are capable of causing severe poisoning in both children and adults.The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. In children, exposures are typically reported soon after ingestion when parents notice plant matter in the childs mouth or notice the child playing with parts of the plant. Conversely adults exposed to a poisonous plant may only contact the Poisons Centre when they become symptomatic.In this review we examine the poisonous plants about which the NZNPC most commonly receives enquiries and include their botanical descriptions, toxins present, mechanisms of toxicity and toxic effects and also provide comprehensive poisoning treatment protocols.Methods The NZNPC is the sole Poison Information Centre for New Zealand; covering a population of approximately 4.4 million people, it serves a mixed population of urban and rural areas. The NZNPC uses an in-house telephone collection system; it is built on Firebird 2122 v2.0.3 software which is developed by the Firebird Project. This system logs information pertaining to all enquires received by the NZNPC. Call data from the telephone collection database regarding human plant exposures were analysed retrospectively for the years 2003-2010 inclusively. Excluded were enquires regarding exposure to known non-poisonous plants, mushroom/fungi exposures, unidentified plants, animal poisonings and requests for general information in the absence of an actual exposure. The 15 most commonly enquired about plants over the 8-year period were selected as the basis for this review. Some of these, however, possess similar toxins, mechanisms of action and/or clinical effects, and such plants were considered as a single entity. For example oleander and foxglove both contain toxic cardiac glycosides and have a comparable toxidrome. In compiling the review article, an extensive literature review was performed by searching Ovid MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Initial searching of these databases was done using specific species and common names of the plants, along with the keywords poisoning, poison, toxicity, ingestion, adverse effects, overdose, intoxication and toxin to identify relevant articles. Bibliographies of identified articles were screened for additional relevant studies including non-indexed reports. In addition, non-peer-reviewed sources were also included; further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and applicable internet resources. Results For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC, of which 171,130 were related to acute human exposure. Of these exposure enquiries, 11,049 (6.5%) involved plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries involved, in decreasing order of frequency, were black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), oleander (Nerium oleander), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox), and foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). The combined total number of calls for these 15 species was 2754 (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). Children (less than 12 years of age) were involved in 2210 (80%) of these calls while adults were involved in 544 (20%). The number of enquiries received for each of the 15 species over the 8 year period along with the number regarding children or adults are presented in Table 1. Table 2 shows the number of exposures by different routes for each of the 15 species. The route of exposure was classified as either ingestion, eye contact, skin contact or inhalation (e.g. exposure following the inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter). Table 1. Total enquiries received and numbers of child and adult enquiries for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Children Adults Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 749 (90%) 85 (10%) Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 520 (93.5%) 36 (6.5%) Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 137 (88%) 18 (12%) Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 36 (24%) 113 (76%) Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 143 (99%) 1 (1%) Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 108 (79%) 28 (21%) Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 123 (96%) 5 (4%) Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 92 (76%) 29 (24%) Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 53 (56%) 42 (44%) Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 56 (67%) 28 (33%) Oleander Nerium oleander 81 43 (53%) 38 (47%) Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 39 (51%) 38 (49%) Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 61 (88%) 8 (12%) Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 5 (8%) 59 (92%) Foxglove Digitalis purpurea 61 45 (74%) 16 (26%) Total 2754 2210 (80%) 544 (20%) Table 2. Total enquiries received and route of exposure for each of the 15 plants from 2003-2010 Common name Species name Number of calls Route of exposure Ingestion Skin Eye Inhalation Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum 834 778 35 19 2 Arum Lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 556 525 26 5 - Kowhai Sophora spp. 155 152 - - 3 Euphorbia Euphorbia spp. 149 31 14 104 - Peace Lily Spathiphyllum spp. 144 142 2 - - Agapanthus Agapanthus spp. 136 102 25 7 2 Stinking Iris Iris foetidissima 128 127 1 - - Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 121 120 1 - - Taro Colocasia esculentum 95 86 8 1 - Daffodil Narcissus spp. 84 82 2 - - Oleander Nerium oleander 81 46 23 6 6 Hemlock Conium maculatum 77 52 22 1 2 Karaka Corynocarpus laevigatus 69 69 - - - Ongaonga Urtica ferox 64 1 60 3 - Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Summary
Abstract
New Zealand has a number of plants, both native and introduced, contact with which can lead to poisoning. The New Zealand National Poisons Centre (NZNPC) frequently receives enquiries regarding exposures to poisonous plants. Poisonous plants can cause harm following inadvertent ingestion, via skin contact, eye exposures or inhalation of sawdust or smoked plant matter.
Aim
The purpose of this article is to determine the 15 most common poisonous plant enquiries to the NZNPC and provide a review of current literature, discussing the symptoms that might arise upon exposure to these poisonous plants and the recommended medical management of such poisonings.
Method
Call data from the NZNPC telephone collection databases regarding human plant exposures between 2003 and 2010 were analysed retrospectively. The most common plants causing human poisoning were selected as the basis for this review. An extensive literature review was also performed by systematically searching OVID MEDLINE, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. Further information was obtained from book chapters, relevant news reports and web material.
Results
For the years 2003-2010 inclusive, a total of 256,969 enquiries were received by the NZNPC. Of these enquiries, 11,049 involved exposures to plants and fungi. The most common poisonous plant enquiries, in decreasing order of frequency, were: black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), kowhai (Sophora spp.), euphorbia (Euphorbia spp.), peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.), agapanthus (Agapanthus spp.), stinking iris (Iris foetidissima), rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), taro (Colocasia esculentum), oleander (Nerium oleander), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), hemlock (Conium maculatum), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and ongaonga/New Zealand tree nettle (Urtica ferox). The combined total of enquiries for these 15 species was 2754 calls (representing approximately 25% of all enquiries regarding plant exposures). The signs and symptoms resulting from poisoning from these plants are discussed. Medical treatment recommendations are made.
Conclusion
Poisoning following ingestion or other forms of exposures to plants in New Zealand is relatively common, particularly among children. However, serious adverse reactions are comparatively rare. Accurate plant identification and details on the type of exposure can be important in assessing the likely risks. Effective medical management of these poisonings can be achieved by following the principles outlined in this review.
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Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre
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